Lady Justice , often used as a personification of the law, holding a sword in one hand and scales in the other.Law enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the art of justice. State-enforced laws can be made by a group legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes ; by the executive through decrees and regulations ; or established by judges through precedent , usually in common law jurisdictions. Private individuals may create legally binding contracts , including arbitration agreements that adopt alternative ways of resolving disputes to standard court litigation. The creation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution , written or tacit, and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics , economics , history and society in various ways and also serves as a mediator of relations between people.
Legal systems vary between jurisdictions , with their differences analysed in comparative law . In civil law jurisdictions, a legislature or other central body codifies and consolidates the law. In common law systems, judges may make binding case law through precedent , although on occasion this may be overturned by a higher court or the legislature. Historically, religious law has influenced secular matters and is, as of the 21st century, still in use in some religious communities. Sharia law based on Islamic principles is used as the primary legal system in several countries, including Iran and Saudi Arabia .
The scope of law can be divided into two domains: public law concerns government and society, including constitutional law , administrative law , and criminal law ; while private law deals with legal disputes between parties in areas such as contracts , property , torts , delicts and commercial law . This distinction is stronger in civil law countries, particularly those with a separate system of administrative courts ; by contrast, the public-private law divide is less pronounced in common law jurisdictions. (Full article...
Paragraph 175 §175 StGB ; also known as Section 175 in English ) was a provision of the German Criminal Code from 15 May 1871 to 10 March 1994. It made sexual relations between males a crime , and in early revisions the provision also criminalized bestiality as well as forms of prostitution and underage sexual abuse . Overall, around 140,000 men were convicted under the law. The law had always been controversial and inspired the first homosexual movement , which called for its repeal.
The statute drew legal influence from previous measures, including those undertaken by the Holy Roman Empire and Prussian states . It was amended several times. The Nazis broadened the law in 1935 as part of the most severe persecution of homosexual men in history . It was one of the few Nazi-era laws retained in its original form in West Germany , although East Germany reverted to the pre-Nazi version. In 1987, the law was ruled unconstitutional in East Germany, and was repealed there in 1989. In West Germany, the law was revised in 1969, 1973, and finally repealed in 1994. (Full article...
Assata Olugbala Shakur JoAnne Deborah Byron ; July 16, 1947), also known as Joanne Chesimard , is an American political activist and convicted murderer who was a member of the Black Liberation Army (BLA). In 1977, she was convicted in the first-degree murder of State Trooper Werner Foerster during a shootout on the New Jersey Turnpike in 1973. She escaped from prison in 1979 and is currently wanted by the FBI, with a $1 million FBI reward for information leading to her capture, and an additional $1 million reward offered by the Attorney General of New Jersey.
Born in Flushing, Queens , she grew up in New York City and Wilmington, North Carolina . After she ran away from home several times, her aunt, who would later act as one of her lawyers, took her in. She became involved in political activism at Borough of Manhattan Community College and City College of New York . After graduation, she began using the name Assata Shakur, and briefly joined the Black Panther Party . She then joined the BLA , a loosely knit offshoot of the Black Panthers, which engaged in an armed struggle against the US government through tactics including robbing banks and killing police officers and drug dealers.
Between 1971 and 1973, she was charged with several crimes and was the subject of a multi-state manhunt . In May 1973, Shakur was arrested after being wounded in a shootout on the New Jersey Turnpike . Also involved in the shootout were New Jersey State Troopers Werner Foerster and James Harper and BLA members Sundiata Acoli and Zayd Malik Shakur. State Trooper Harper was wounded; Zayd Shakur was killed; State Trooper Foerster was killed. Between 1973 and 1977, Shakur was charged with murder , attempted murder , armed robbery , bank robbery , and kidnapping in relation to the shootout and six other incidents. She was acquitted on three of the charges and three were dismissed . In 1977, she was convicted of the murder of State Trooper Foerster and of seven other felonies related to the 1973 shootout. Her defense had argued medical evidence suggested her innocence since her arm was damaged in the shootout.
While serving a life sentence for murder, Shakur escaped in 1979, with assistance from the BLA and members of the May 19 Communist Organization , from the Clinton Correctional Facility for Women in Union Township, NJ , now the Edna Mahan Correctional Facility for Women . She surfaced in Cuba in 1984, where she was granted political asylum . Shakur has lived in Cuba since, despite US government efforts to have her returned. She has been on the FBI Most Wanted Terrorists list since 2013 as Joanne Deborah Chesimard and was the first woman to be added to this list. (Full article...
A statute legislative body, a stage in the process of legislation . Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy . Statutes are laws made by legislative bodies; they are distinguished from case law or precedent , which is decided by courts , regulations issued by government agencies , and oral or customary law .[better source needed Statutes may originate with the legislative body of a country, state or province, county, or municipality . (Full article...
The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom , which form part of the constitution of the United Kingdom . Section 2(2) of the Parliament Act 1949 provides that the two Acts are to be construed as one.
The Parliament Act 1911 (1 & 2 Geo. 5. c. 13) asserted the supremacy of the House of Commons by limiting the legislation-blocking powers of the House of Lords (the suspensory veto ). Provided the provisions of the Act are met, legislation can be passed without the approval of the House of Lords. Additionally, the 1911 Act amended the Septennial Act 1716 to reduce the maximum life of a Parliament from seven years to five years. The Parliament Act 1911 was amended by the Parliament Act 1949 (12, 13 & 14 Geo. 6. c. 103), which further limited the power of the Lords by reducing the time that they could delay bills, from two years to one.
The Parliament Acts have been used to pass legislation against the wishes of the House of Lords on seven occasions since 1911, including the passing of the Parliament Act 1949. Some constitutional lawyers had questioned the validity of the 1949 Act. These doubts were rejected in 2005 when members of the Countryside Alliance unsuccessfully challenged the validity of the Hunting Act 2004 , which had been passed under the auspices of the Act. In October 2005, the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords dismissed the Alliance's appeal against this decision, with an unusually large panel of nine Law Lords (out of then-existing twelve) holding that the 1949 Act was a valid Act of Parliament. (Full article...
... that Dutch physician Aletta Jacobs ′constitutional amendment granting voting rights only to men? ... that when Henry McCardie barrister , he often worked so late that his chambers were nicknamed "the lighthouse", as there was light coming from the windows? ... that the diaries of James Humphreys
Case law common law , is a law that is based on precedents , that is the judicial decisions from previous cases, rather than law based on constitutions , statutes , or regulations . Case law uses the detailed facts of a legal case that have been resolved by courts or similar tribunals . These past decisions are called "case law", or precedent. Stare decisis —a Latin phrase meaning "let the decision stand"—is the principle by which judges are bound to such past decisions, drawing on established judicial authority to formulate their positions. (Full article...
Cambridge Water Co Ltd v Eastern Counties Leather plc 1 All ER 53 is a case in English tort law that established the principle that claims under nuisance and Rylands v Fletcher Rylands was a sub-set of nuisance rather than an independent tort, a debate eventually laid to rest in Transco plc v Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council
The Cambridge Water Company were a company responsible for providing potable water to the inhabitants of Cambridge and the surrounding areas. In 1976, they purchased a borehole outside Sawston to deal with rising demand. In 1980, a European Directive was issued requiring nations of the European Community to establish standards on the presence of perchloroethene (PCE) in water, which the United Kingdom did in 1982. It was found that the Sawston borehole was contaminated with PCE that had originated in a tannery owned by Eastern Counties Leather. Prior to 1980, there was no knowledge that PCE should be avoided or that it could cause harm, but the Cambridge Water Company brought a case against Eastern Counties Leather anyway.
The case first went to the High Court of Justice , where Kennedy J dismissed claims under nuisance, negligence and Rylands v Fletcher because the harm was not foreseeable. His decision was reversed by the Court of Appeal of England and Wales , who cited an "obscure decision" to justify doing so. The case then went to the House of Lords , where a decision was read by Lord Goff on 9 December 1993. Goff first countered the Court of Appeal decision, restoring Kennedy's dismissal of the case, before moving on to the deeper legal points. Based on the original decision in Rylands , Goff argued that it had always been intended for foreseeability of harm to be a factor, something not previously put into law by the English judiciary. He then stated that Rylands was arguably a sub-set of nuisance, not an independent tort, and as such the factors which led him to including a test of foreseeability of harm in Rylands cases also imposed such a test on all nuisance cases.
The decision in Cambridge Water Co made an immediate change to the law, for the first time requiring foreseeability of harm to be considered in cases brought under Rylands v Fletcher and the general tort of nuisance. It was also significant in implying that Rylands was not an independent tort, something later concluded in the Transco case. Goff's judgment has been criticised on several points by academics, who highlight flaws in wording which leave parts of the judgment ambiguous and a selective assessment of Rylands that ignores outside influences. (Full article...
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The following are images from various law-related articles on Wikipedia.
Image 1 Oliver Wendell Holmes was a self-styled legal realist. (from
Jurisprudence )
Image 2 Image of pages from the
Decretum of
Burchard of Worms , an 11th-century book of canon law (from
Canon law )
Image 3 The
Constitution of India is the longest written constitution for a country, containing 444 articles, 12 schedules, numerous amendments and 117,369 words (from
Legal history )
Image 4 Thomas Aquinas was the most influential Western medieval legal scholar. (from
Jurisprudence )
Image 5 Lady Justice (Latin:
Justicia ), symbol of the judiciary. Statue at Shelby County Courthouse, Memphis, Tennessee (from
Judiciary )
Image 6 Bentham's utilitarian theories remained dominant in law until the twentieth century. (from
Jurisprudence )
Image 7 Plato (left) and
Aristotle (right), a detail of
The School of Athens (from
Jurisprudence )
Image 8 King John of England signs the Magna Carta (from
Legal history )
Image 9 Corpus Iuris Civilis , 1607 (from
Judiciary )
Image 10 Mill believed law should create happiness. (from
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Image 11 Gratian (from
Judiciary )
Image 14 Philosophers of law ask "what is law, and what should it be?" (from
Jurisprudence )
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